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- HICNet Medical News Digest Wed, 15 Dec 1993 Volume 06 : Issue 55
-
- Today's Topics:
-
- [MMWR 10 Dec 93] Absence of Reported Measles
- [MMWR] Infant Mortality
- [MMWR] Outbreaks of Mycoplasma pneumoniae Respiratory Infection
- [MMWR] Driver Safety-Belt Use
- [MMWR] Flood-Related Mortality
- New Treatment Prevent Respiratory Infection in High Rish Infants
-
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- Editor: David Dodell, D.M.D.
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-
- Date: Wed, 15 Dec 93 22:56:40 MST
- From: mednews (HICNet Medical News)
- To: hicnews
- Subject: [MMWR 10 Dec 93] Absence of Reported Measles
- Message-ID: <6oZmec1w165w@stat.com>
-
- Current Trends
- Absence of Reported Measles -- United States,
- November 1993
-
- For the first time since measles reporting began in 1912, no measles
- cases have been reported in the United States for 3 consecutive weeks
- (November 7-November 27 [weeks 45-47], 1993). In addition, no cases have been
- reported with onset since September 22 that were not directly linked with
- importations.
- Of the provisional total of 277 measles cases reported in 1993 through
- November 27, a total of 57 persons had onsets of illness since July 4. Of
- these, 29 (51%) were imported or linked through a continuous chain of
- transmission to an imported case. Twelve (21%) cases resulted from continued
- transmission from measles outbreaks that began before July 4. Fourteen (25%)
- cases could not be linked to an existing outbreak, an international
- importation, or another reported case and were classified as sporadic index
- cases. Two cases were epidemiologically linked to these cases. Twelve of the
- 14 sporadic index cases were laboratory confirmed.
-
- Reported by: State and local health depts. National Immunization Program, CDC.
-
- Editorial Note: The 3-week period without reported measles cases reflects at
- least four factors: 1) major increases in measles vaccination coverage levels
- among preschool-aged children; 2) increased use of a second dose of measles
- vaccine among school-aged children and young adults attending college; 3) an
- overall increase in efforts to control measles throughout the Western
- Hemisphere; and 4) the usual seasonally low incidence of measles during the
- fall (1,2). Furthermore, the absence of any reported persons with sporadic
- index cases of measles who had onset after September 22 may reflect a
- cessation of endemic measles transmission in the United States during this
- period.
- The absence of reported endemic foci of measles transmission does not
- indicate that measles has been eliminated in the United States. In the past,
- substantial numbers of measles cases were not reported to public health
- authorities (3). Therefore, surveillance must be intensified to permit the
- identification and elimination of any remaining foci of transmission. Any case
- of rash illness suspected to be measles should be reported promptly to public
- health authorities to enable immediate investigation and vigorous control
- measures to minimize spread of infection. For each case, laboratory
- confirmation should be obtained, vaccination status determined, and source of
- exposure ascertained.
- Although current measles activity is at its lowest level ever in the
- United States, previous periods of low activity have been followed by
- resurgences (4,5). High vaccination coverage levels among preschool- and
- school-aged children need to be achieved and sustained in all communities to
- ensure the elimination of endemic measles transmission.
-
- References
-
- 1. CDC. Measles--United States, first 26 weeks, 1993. MMWR 1993;42:813-6.
-
- 2. Pan American Health Organization. Central America: defeating measles. EPI
- Newsletter 1993;XV(5):2-3.
-
- 3. Davis SF, Strebel PM, Atkinson WL, et al. Reporting efficiency during a
- measles outbreak in New York City, 1991. Am J Public Health 1993;83: 1011-5.
-
- 4. CDC. Measles--United States, 1982. MMWR 1983;32:49-51.
-
- 5. Atkinson WL, Orenstein WA, Krugman S. The resurgence of measles in the
- United States, 1989-90. Annu Rev Med 1992;43:451-63.
-
-
-
-
- ------------------------------
-
- Date: Wed, 15 Dec 93 22:57:11 MST
- From: mednews (HICNet Medical News)
- To: hicnews
- Subject: [MMWR] Infant Mortality
- Message-ID: <1PZmec2w165w@stat.com>
-
- Current Trends
- Infant Mortality -- United States, 1991
-
- The final infant (less than 1 year of age) mortality rate for the United
- States for 1991--8.9 infant deaths per 1000 live births--was the lowest rate
- ever recorded and represented a decrease of 3% from the rate of 9.2 for 1990
- (Figure 1). Based on provisional data, the trend of declining infant mortality
- continued through 1992 (rate: 8.5) (1). Infant mortality rates varied by race;
- race reflected differing distributions of several risk factors for infant
- death (e.g., low birthweight [LBW] [less than 2500 g (5 lbs 9 oz) at birth])
- and is useful for identifying groups at greatest risk for infant death. This
- report uses race-specific information from birth and death certificates
- compiled by CDC's National Center for Health Statistics' Vital Statistics
- System (2) to characterize infant mortality in 1991 and compares findings with
- those for 1990.
- In this report, cause-of-death statistics are based on the underlying
- cause of death* reported on the death certificate by the attending physician,
- medical examiner, or coroner in a manner specified by the World Health
- Organization. Race for infants who died was tabulated by race of infant; race
- for live births (which comprise the denominator of infant mortality rates) was
- tabulated by race of mother. Rates are presented only for black and white
- infants because the Linked Birth/Infant Death Data Set (used to more
- accurately estimate infant mortality rates for other racial groups) was not
- available for 1990 and 1991.
- A total of 36,766 infants died during 1991, compared with 38,351 during
- 1990. The mortality rate for white** infants in 1991 (7.3 per 1000) decreased
- 4% from the rate in 1990 (7.6); for black** infants, the difference between
- the rates for 1990 and 1991 was not statistically significant (18.0 and 17.6,
- respectively). From 1990 to 1991, the neonatal (less than 28 days of age)
- mortality rate decreased 3% (5.8 to 5.6 per 1000). For white infants, the rate
- decreased from 4.8 to 4.5 and for black infants, from 11.6 to 11.2. The
- postneonatal (28 days-11 months of age) mortality rate remained constant at
- 3.4 in 1990 and 1991.
- From 1990 to 1991, the infant mortality rate decreased for six of the 10
- leading causes of infant death and increased for three causes (Table 1). The
- largest decreases were for intrauterine hypoxia and birth asphyxia
- (International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision [ICD-9], code 768)
- (20%), respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) (ICD-9 code 769) (9%), and
- congenital anomalies (ICD-9 codes 740-759) and newborn affected by maternal
- complications of pregnancy (ICD-9 code 761) (6% each). The increases were for
- disorders relating to short gestation and unspecified LBW (ICD-9 code 765)
- (4%), accidents*** and adverse effects (ICD-9 codes E800-E949) (4%), and
- infections specific to the perinatal period (ICD-9 code 771) (2%).
- The rank order of the 10 leading causes of infant death differed by race
- (Table 1). Although the first four leading causes of death were the same for
- white and black infants, their rank ordering differed; these same four causes
- accounted for 56% and 50% of all deaths among white and black infants,
- respectively. For white infants, the leading cause of death was congenital
- anomalies, which accounted for 25% of all deaths among white infants; for
- black infants, the leading cause of death was disorders relating to short
- gestation and unspecified LBW, which accounted for 16% of all deaths among
- black infants.
- In 1991, the risk for dying during the first year of life was 2.4 times
- greater for black than for white infants. For each of the leading causes of
- death, the risk for death was higher for black than for white infants,
- although there were large variations in the magnitude of the excess by cause.
- The cause-specific ratios were highest for disorders relating to short
- gestation and unspecified LBW (4.4:1), pneumonia and influenza (ICD-9 codes
- 480-487) (3.2:1), RDS (2.6:1), infections specific to the perinatal period
- (2.6:1), and newborn affected by maternal complications of pregnancy (2.5:1).
- The ratios were lowest for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) (ICD-9 code
- 798.0); newborn affected by complications of placenta, cord, and membranes
- (ICD-9 code 762); and accidents and adverse effects (2.1:1 each) and
- congenital anomalies (1.2:1). Three of the 10 leading causes of infant death
- accounted for 42% of the difference in infant mortality between black and
- white infants: disorders relating to short gestation and unspecified LBW
- (22%), SIDS (12%), and RDS (8%).
-
- Reported by: Mortality Statistics Br, Div of Vital Statistics, National Center
- for Health Statistics, CDC.
-
- Editorial Note: The infant mortality rate--a standard index of health--is
- higher in the United States than in many other developed countries. In 1989
- (the most recent year for which comparative data are available), the U.S.
- infant mortality rate ranked 24th among countries or geographic areas with a
- population of at least 1 million (3), a decline in rank from 1980 (20th) (4).
- The U.S. infant mortality rate declined by approximately 5% per year
- during the 1970s, but slowed to an annual average decrease of 3% during the
- 1980s. The decline of 6% from 1989 to 1990 primarily reflected a 24% decrease
- in mortality from RDS. From 1990 to 1991, the infant mortality rate declined
- by 3%; more than half of this decrease represented declines in mortality from
- congenital anomalies (35%) and RDS (19%). The decline in mortality from
- congenital anomalies (6% overall) was primarily among whites; mortality from
- congenital anomalies remained constant among blacks. Shifts in the age
- distribution of mothers between 1990 and 1991 may account for some of the
- decline in mortality from congenital anomalies (5). The decline in mortality
- from 1990 to 1991 from RDS may reflect improvements in medical management of
- this condition (6).
- Differences in infant mortality rates by race may reflect differences in
- factors such as socioeconomic status, access to medical care, and the
- prevalence of specific risks. For example, the mortality rate is substantially
- higher for infants born to mothers of low socioeconomic status (7). In 1990,
- nearly three times as many black as white infants (56% versus 20%) were
- members of families with incomes below the poverty level (Bureau of the
- Census, unpublished data, 1992). In addition, because of income differentials,
- a lower proportion of black women have health insurance that covers the costs
- of adequate care for pregnancy and childbirth (6,8).
- LBW is an important intermediate variable between some risk factors and
- infant mortality. In 1987 (the most recent year for which such data were
- available), 6.9% of infants were born with LBW; however, 61% of all infant
- deaths occurred among these infants. In 1991, 13.6% of black infants were born
- with LBW, compared with 5.8% of white infants (6). Most of the causes of death
- for which black infants are at substantially elevated risk for death are
- closely associated with LBW. For three of the four causes of infant death
- characterized by the highest ratios of black-to-white mortality rates (i.e.,
- disorders relating to short gestation and unspecified LBW, RDS, and newborn
- affected by maternal complications of pregnancy), approximately 95% of the
- deaths in 1987 occurred among LBW infants (CDC, unpublished data, 1992).
- The 1990 national health objective to reduce the overall infant mortality
- rate to 9.0 deaths per 1000 live births (9) was achieved in 1991 (recorded
- rate: 8.9). A year 2000 national health objective is to reduce the overall
- infant mortality rate to no more than 7.0 per 1000 live births (objective
- 14.1) (9). This objective can be achieved by sustaining an average annual
- decrease of at least 2.4% for the total population.
- Strategies to achieve the national health objective for reducing infant
- mortality should consider the heterogeneity of factors accounting for infant
- mortality in the United States. For example, reducing mortality from disorders
- related to short gestation and unspecified LBW will require both improved
- access to adequate prenatal care and understanding of etiologic risk factors
- for preterm delivery; reduction of deaths related to maternal complications of
- pregnancy will require both expansion of access to prenatal care and
- assessment of the adequacy of the content of care (10). Efforts to address
- these and other heterogenous risk factors may increase the likelihood of
- achieving the year 2000 national health objective to reduce infant mortality.
-
- References
-
- 1. NCHS. Annual summary of births, marriages, divorces, and deaths: United
- States, 1992. Hyattsville, Maryland: US Department of Health and Human
- Services, Public Health Service, CDC, 1993. (Monthly vital statistics report;
- vol 41, no. 13).
-
- 2. NCHS. Advance report of final mortality statistics, 1991. Hyattsville,
- Maryland: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,
- CDC, 1993. (Monthly vital statistics report; vol 42, no. 2, suppl).
-
- 3. NCHS. Health, United States, 1992. Hyattsville, Maryland: US Department of
- Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, CDC, 1993; DHHS publication
- no. (PHS)93-1232.
-
- 4. NCHS. Health, United States, 1988. Hyattsville, Maryland: US Department of
- Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, CDC, 1989; DHHS publication
- no. (PHS)89-1232.
-
- 5. NCHS. Advance report of final natality statistics, 1991. Hyattsville,
- Maryland: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service,
- CDC, 1993. (Monthly vital statistics report; vol 42, no. 3, suppl).
-
- 6. Long W, Corbet A, Cotton R, et al. A controlled trial of synthetic
- surfactant in infants weighing 1250 g or more with respiratory distress
- syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1696-703.
-
- 7. Gould JB, Davey B, LeRoy S. Socioeconomic differentials and neonatal
- mortality: racial comparison of California singletons. Pediatrics 1989;83:181-
- 6.
-
- 8. Alan Guttmacher Institute. Blessed events and the bottom line: financing
- maternity care in the United States. New York: Alan Guttmacher Institute,
- 1987.
-
- 9. Public Health Service. Healthy people 2000: national health promotion and
- disease prevention objectives--full report, with commentary. Washington, DC:
- US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1991; DHHS
- publication no. (PHS)91-50212.
-
- 10. Public Health Service. Caring for our future: the content of prenatal
- care--a report of the Public Health Service Expert Panel on the Content of
- Prenatal Care. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services,
- Public Health Service, 1989.
-
- *Defined by the World Health Organization's International Classification of
- Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9), as "(a) the disease or injury which
- initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or (b) the
- circumstances of the accident or violence which produced the fatal injury."
-
- **Includes Hispanic and non-Hispanic infants.
-
- ***When a death occurs under "accidental" circumstances, the preferred term
- within the public health community is "unintentional injury."
-
-
-
-
- ------------------------------
-
- Date: Wed, 15 Dec 93 22:58:01 MST
- From: mednews (HICNet Medical News)
- To: hicnews
- Subject: [MMWR] Outbreaks of Mycoplasma pneumoniae Respiratory Infection
- Message-ID: <eRZmec3w165w@stat.com>
-
- Epidemiologic Notes and Reports
- Outbreaks of Mycoplasma pneumoniae Respiratory Infection --
- Ohio, Texas, and New York, 1993
-
- From June through November 1993, three outbreaks of acute respiratory
- illness (ARI) occurred in institutional settings in Ohio, Texas, and New York.
- This report summarizes investigations by state and local public health
- officials, military personnel, and CDC, which indicate that Mycoplasma
- pneumoniae was the cause of these outbreaks.
-
- Ohio
-
- From June 15 through September 5, ARI characterized by acute onset of
- cough and fever occurred among 47 (12%) of 403 staff members and clients of a
- sheltered workshop for developmentally disabled adults in Ohio (Figure 1). The
- median age of patients was 35 years (range: 20-60 years); seven (15%) required
- hospitalization, and 31 (66%) had radiographic evidence of pneumonia.
- Thirty-eight persons had laboratory evidence of Mycoplasma infection: all
- had convalescent-phase serum antibody titers for Mycoplasma greater than or
- equal to 32 by complement fixation (CF), 22 (58%) had CF titers of greater
- than or equal to 128, and four (11%) had a fourfold rise in CF titers. M.
- pneumoniae was isolated from nasopharyngeal secretions of two of eight
- patients with available specimens. Serologic and microbiologic studies were
- negative for acute viral and non-Mycoplasma bacterial infections.
- Although no deaths occurred among persons with laboratory-confirmed
- cases, one workshop participant who had not been evaluated for Mycoplasma
- infection died on June 30 from complications of pneumonia.
- Beginning August 6, persons with ARI were excluded from work until
- completion of at least 3 days of antimicrobial therapy. No cases of M.
- pneumoniae have been identified since September 5.
-
- Texas
-
- From August 1 through November 14, a total of 215 cases of ARI occurred
- among staff members at a 4500-employee tertiary-care center in southern Texas.
- Illnesses were characterized by abrupt onset of headache, shaking chills, and
- severe myalgias, followed by fever and cough. The median age of patients was
- 32 years (range: 19-70 years); 43 (20%) had radiographic evidence of
- pneumonia, and five (2%) required hospitalization.
- Of 58 patients for whom paired serum specimens were available,
- convalescent-phase antibody titers by CF for Mycoplasma were greater than or
- equal to 32 for 47 (81%); fourfold rises in CF antibody titers occurred in 12
- (21%). Immunoblot studies in five patients demonstrated antibody to M.
- pneumoniae in convalescent-phase serum specimens. Serologic and microbiologic
- tests were negative for acute viral and non-Mycoplasma bacterial infections.
- The most recent radiographically confirmed case of pneumonia occurred on
- November 8. Laboratory confirmation of other ARI cases is pending.
-
- New York
-
- On October 6, the New York State Department of Health initiated an
- investigation of ARI among clients and employees of an autism program in a
- residential developmental center in upstate New York. From August 1 through
- October 26, 48 cases (25%) of ARI or acute otitis media were identified among
- the 189 employees and clients of the program. The median age of affected
- persons was 33 years (range: 12-61 years). Three patients (6%) were
- hospitalized, 11 (23%) had radiographic evidence of pneumonia, and two (4%)
- had bullous myringitis.
- M. pneumoniae was isolated from oropharyngeal secretions of two of five
- patients with available specimens. Of six patients with serum specimens
- available, CF convalescent-phase antibody titers were greater than or equal to
- 64 in two. Serologic and microbiologic tests were negative for acute viral and
- non-Mycoplasma bacterial infections.
- From October 7 through November 10, contact between clients and employees
- of the autism program and the other sections of the center was restricted. The
- most recent patient had onset of illness on October 26.
-
- Reported by: L Smyth, S Swope, DO, L Wiser, GT Reed, DVM, Warren County
- Combined Health District, Lebanon; ED Peterson, RA French, MPA, FW Smith, MD,
- TJ Halpin, MD, State Epidemiologist, PJ Somani, MD, Director of Health, Ohio
- Dept of Health. M Emig, MD, RR Liu, MD, K Storms, GP Melcher, MD, MJ Dolan,
- MD, United States Air Force; J Schuermann, DM Simpson, MD, State
- Epidemiologist, Texas Dept of Health. SF Kondracki, CK Csiza, PhD, RA Duncan,
- MS, GS Birkhead, MD, DL Morse, MD, State Epidemiologist, New York State Dept
- of Health. Div of Field Epidemiology, Epidemiology Program Office; Childhood
- and Respiratory Diseases Br, Div of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases, National
- Center for Infectious Diseases, CDC.
-
- Editorial Note: M. pneumoniae is a common cause of acute upper and lower
- respiratory infection in children and young adults. Infections with M.
- pneumoniae occur sporadically throughout the year, and outbreaks are most
- common during the fall, typically in 4-7-year cycles (1). However, the
- findings in this report suggest a potential increase in the occurrence of M.
- pneumoniae infections this winter.
- Transmission of M. pneumoniae infections probably occurs through close
- contact with contaminated respiratory droplets (2). The investigations in
- Ohio, Texas, and New York indicate that epidemics spanning several months may
- occur in institutional settings where prolonged contact is common (2,3). The
- incubation period for this pathogen (16-32 days) (4) may contribute to
- protracted duration of epidemics and may limit the effectiveness of cohorting
- as a measure for controlling outbreaks.
- The precise incidence of Mycoplasma infection is unknown because
- surveillance is not conducted, and laboratory confirmation is usually not
- obtained. However, prospective studies suggest that M. pneumoniae accounts for
- 15%-20% of community-acquired lower respiratory infection in adults (1,5).
- Approximately 20% of infections are asymptomatic; symptomatic disease is
- typically mild and is characterized by nonproductive cough, fever, malaise,
- and pharyngitis (6). Other features include myalgias (45%) and otalgia (31%);
- 3%-13% of patients infected with M. pneumoniae develop pneumonia (4,6). Less
- common complications include adult respiratory distress syndrome,
- pericarditis, myocarditis, hemolytic anemia, and encephalitis (1). Macrolides
- or tetracycline are the antimicrobials of choice for M. pneumoniae infections;
- however, treatment does not eradicate carriage of the organism (7). The
- efficacy of prophylactic antimicrobial use in outbreak settings is
- undetermined.
- Distinguishing M. pneumoniae from other causes of acute respiratory
- infection is difficult because of a lack of reliable, widely available, rapid
- diagnostic tests. Definitive diagnosis requires isolation of Mycoplasma or a
- fourfold rise in CF antibody titers between acute- and convalescent-phase
- serum specimens, ideally obtained 2-3 weeks apart (8). Isolation of this
- organism can be difficult and may require up to 6 weeks (9). Although single,
- elevated CF titers can be useful in identifying cases in epidemiologic
- investigations, they are of limited usefulness for clinical diagnosis. Cold
- agglutinins may be present in the acute serum of 30%-60% of patients; however,
- this finding is nonspecific and is not useful for diagnostic purposes (8).
- Rapid, direct assays of respiratory secretions are being evaluated but are not
- widely available commercially (9).
- M. pneumoniae should be considered in patients with acute respiratory
- illnesses, especially if associated with failure to improve when patients are
- treated with beta-lactam antibiotics. Persistence of the organism in
- respiratory secretions, despite appropriate antimicrobial therapy, may limit
- the usefulness of short-term cohorting during outbreaks. Prompt recognition of
- outbreaks in institutional settings, combined with cohorting of symptomatic
- patients when feasible, may avert morbidity.
-
- References
-
- 1. Foy HM. Infections caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae and possible carrier
- state in a different population of patients. Clin Infect Dis
- 1993;17(suppl):S37-S46.
-
- 2. Steinberg P, White RJ, Fuld SL, Gutekunst RR, Chanock RM, Senterfit LB.
- Ecology of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in Marine recruits at Parris
- Island, South Carolina. Am J Epidemiol 1969;89:62-73.
-
- 3. Fernald GW, Clyde WA Jr. Epidemic pneumonia in university students. J
- Adolesc Health Care 1989;10:520-6.
-
- 4. Foy HM, Grayston JT, Kenny G, et al. Epidemiology of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- infection in families. JAMA 1966;197:859-66.
-
- 5. Marston BJ, Plouffe JF, Breiman RF, et al. Preliminary findings of a
- community-based pneumonia incidence study. In: Barbaree JM, Breiman RF, Dufour
- AP, eds. Legionella: current status and emerging perspectives. Washington, DC:
- American Society for Microbiology, 1993:36-7.
-
- 6. Clyde WA Jr. Clinical overview of typical Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections.
- Clin Infect Dis 1993;17(suppl):S32-S36.
-
- 7. McCormick WM. Susceptibility of Mycoplasmas to antimicrobial agents:
- clinical implications. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17(suppl):S200-S201.
-
- 8. Jacobs E. Serological diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections: a
- critical review of current procedures. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17(suppl):S79-S82.
-
- 9. Marmion BP, Williamson J, Worswick DA, Kok T-W, Harris RJ. Experience with
- newer techniques for the laboratory detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- infection: Adelaide 1978-1992. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17(suppl):S90-S99.
-
-
-
-
- ------------------------------
-
- Date: Wed, 15 Dec 93 22:58:35 MST
- From: mednews (HICNet Medical News)
- To: hicnews
- Subject: [MMWR] Driver Safety-Belt Use
- Message-ID: <csZmec4w165w@stat.com>
-
- International Notes
- Driver Safety-Belt Use -- Budapest, Hungary, 1993
-
- An estimated 300,000 persons die and 10-15 million persons are injured
- each year in traffic crashes throughout the world (1). Safety-belt use is one
- of the most effective means of reducing the number and severity of injuries in
- motor-vehicle crashes (2). In Hungary, front-seat occupants of all motor
- vehicles have been required to use safety belts since 1976. Since March 1993,
- rear-seat passengers have been required to wear safety belts in nonurban
- areas. Drivers in violation of the law are subject to fines and potential
- suspension of driving privileges. To evaluate driver compliance with the
- safety-belt use law, on May 10, 1993, CDC conducted an observational
- prevalence survey of safety-belt use in Budapest in conjunction with the U.S.
- Department of State and the American International School of Budapest; this
- survey was performed in collaboration with the Hungarian Ministry of
- Transport, Communication, and Water Management and the Budapest Police
- Department. This report presents findings of the study.
- Driver lap/shoulder safety-belt use was observed at seven moderate-to
- high-volume traffic sites in Budapest (1993 estimated population: 2,009,000).
- Sites were selected to reduce repetitive counting of observed vehicles. Pairs
- of pretrained high school students from the American International School
- collected information between 4:30 p.m. and 6 p.m. by observing vehicles at
- intersections convenient and safe for the students and by using a standardized
- form to record driver's safety-belt use, sex, and the type of vehicle (Eastern
- European or non-Eastern European [i.e., any cars not manufactured in the
- former Warsaw Pact countries]). Drivers of taxis (who are not required to wear
- safety belts) were included; drivers of buses, trucks, farm machinery, and
- motorcycles were excluded. Data differentiating taxis from other vehicles were
- not systematically recorded.
- A total of 4894 eligible vehicles were included in the survey. Of the
- drivers, 3850 (79%) were male. The overall belt-use rate was 61%; however, the
- percentage of drivers using safety belts varied by observation site (range:
- 58%-65%). The prevalence of safety-belt use was higher among female (64%) than
- male (60%) drivers (prevalence ratio [PR]=1.03; 95% confidence interval
- [CI]=1.00-1.06). Fifty percent of the vehicles were non-Eastern European
- models; drivers of Eastern European vehicles were more likely to use safety
- belts than drivers of non-Eastern European vehicles (65% versus 57%) (PR=1.2;
- 95% CI=1.1-1.3). Safety-belt use was higher among both female and male drivers
- of Eastern European vehicles (68% [95% CI=64%-72%] and 64% [95% CI=62%-66%],
- respectively) than among female and male drivers of non-Eastern European
- vehicles (59% [95% CI=55%-63%] and 56% [95% CI=54%-58%], respectively).
-
- Reported by: LE Cohen, Environment, Science, and Technology Attache, MD Laude,
- Fascell Fellow, US Embassy, Dept of State, Budapest; G Csaszar, Div of Roads
- and Road Transport, Ministry of Transport, Communication, and Water
- Management; E Komaromi, Dept of Prevention, Budapest Police Dept; FL
- Wassersug, Student Services, American International School of Budapest. Air
- Pollution and Respiratory Health Br, Div of Environmental Hazards and Health
- Effects, National Center for Environmental Health; National Center for Injury
- Prevention and Control, CDC.
-
- Editorial Note: Safety-belt use legislation, first introduced in Australia in
- 1970, is the most effective means of increasing safety-belt use in many
- countries (3). At least 35 countries require safety-belt use (4). In the
- United States, safety-belt use is mandatory in 44 states. The only U.S.
- jurisdictions that have enacted legislation similar to that in Hungary--
- allowing primary enforcement of safety-belt use in all seating positions--are
- Oregon, California, American Samoa, and the Mariana Islands. When compared
- with secondary enforcement laws, implementation of primary enforcement laws
- appears to result in greater and more rapid and sustained increases in safety-
- belt use (5).
- Observations in this study indicate that by May 1993, the prevalence of
- safety-belt use by drivers had increased from that documented by the Ministry
- of Transport, Communication, and Water Management in October 1992 (6). In that
- study, 31% of front-seat occupants (both drivers and passengers) were belted
- (6); however, only 40% of cars had a front-seat passenger. Although recent
- changes in the safety-belt use law in Hungary have targeted persons in rear-
- seat positions, increased use of safety belts among drivers may reflect three
- factors: 1) recent increases in fines, 2) stricter police enforcement of the
- law since April 1, 1993, and 3) increased public awareness generated by the
- media, which during April 1993 routinely broadcast information about the
- changes in the law.
- The findings in this report are subject to at least three limitations.
- First, because many Eastern European vehicles have nonretractable lap/shoulder
- belts, some drivers of these vehicles may have been categorized as belted when
- they may have placed the belts across their shoulders and laps without
- buckling them. Second, this survey also included taxi drivers, who are not
- required to wear safety belts, and data differentiating taxis from other
- vehicles were not systematically gathered. Therefore, the percentage of
- drivers subject to the law who were in compliance was greater than 61%. Third,
- other potential sources of bias in the interpretation of the data from this
- study include lack of random selection of observation sites, restriction of
- observations to the commuting hour on a single day, and the highly urbanized
- environment in which the observations were made.
- In Hungary, traffic crashes were the second leading cause of violent
- deaths (after suicide) in 1992, resulting in 2346 deaths (7). Although the
- number of deaths that could have been prevented by safety-belt use has not
- been determined, the crude mortality rate for motor-vehicle crashes decreased
- 9% in the month after the safety-belt use law was expanded (Ministry of
- Transport, Communication, and Water Management, unpublished data, 1993). To
- increase safety-belt use, law enforcement officials in Budapest plan to widely
- disseminate the results of this study on television and are considering a
- campaign of expanded and long-term enforcement of the safety-belt law, with
- initial emphasis on low safety-belt use locations identified by this study.
-
- References
-
- 1. Ross A, Baguley C, Hills B, McDonald M, Silcock D. Towards safer roads in
- developing countries: a guide for planners and engineers. Crowthorne, England:
- Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 1991.
-
- 2. Chorba TL. Assessing technology for preventing injuries in motor vehicle
- crashes. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 1991;7:296-314.
-
- 3. Vaaje T. Safety belt usage laws in various countries. In: Effectiveness of
- safety belt use laws: a multinational examination. Washington, DC: US
- Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration,
- 1986:13-23; publication no. DOT-HS-807-018.
-
- 4. El-Nour S, Mufti MH. Seat belt legislation and the experience of the world.
- Journal of Traffic Medicine 1992;20:83-90.
-
- 5. Escobedo LG, Chorba TL, Remington PL, Anda RF, Sanderson L, Zaidi AA. The
- influence of safety belt laws on self-reported safety belt use in the United
- States. Accid Anal Prev 1992;24:643-53.
-
- 6. Kozlekedesi Hirkozlesi es Vizugyi Miniszterium [Ministry of Transport,
- Communication, and Water Management]. Szemelygepkocsik biztonsagi oveinek
- viselesi aranyai [Frequency of safety belt use in passenger cars]. Budapest:
- Technischer Uberwachungs Verein Hannover Kft., 1992.
-
- 7. Kozponti Statisztikai Hivatal [Central Statistical Office]. Kozlekedesi
- balesetek [Transport accidents]. Budapest: Agria Kiado Kft., 1991.
-
-
-
-
- ------------------------------
-
- Date: Wed, 15 Dec 93 22:59:13 MST
- From: mednews (HICNet Medical News)
- To: hicnews
- Subject: [MMWR] Flood-Related Mortality
- Message-ID: <eTZmec5w165w@stat.com>
-
- Epidemiologic Notes and Reports
- Flood-Related Mortality -- Missouri, 1993
-
- Public health surveillance documented the impact of flood-related
- morbidity following the floods in the midwestern United States during the
- summer of 1993 (1,2). Because of extensive flooding of the Missouri and
- Mississippi rivers and their tributaries, the Missouri Department of Health
- (MDH) initiated surveillance to monitor flood-related mortality. This report
- summarizes epidemiologic information about deaths in Missouri that resulted
- from riverine flooding and flash flooding during the summer and fall of 1993.
- To identify flood-related deaths, CDC and MDH telephoned and obtained
- epidemiologic information from medical examiners and coroners (ME/Cs) in the
- 71 disaster-declared counties and in St. Louis (1990 combined population:
- 4,166,122) and contacted coroners of 24 counties adjacent to disaster-affected
- areas (1990 combined population: 435,127). A flood-related death was defined
- as a death resulting from an event that occurred after June 28 (when flash
- floods began to occur and the potential threat of riverine flooding was
- recognized by the State Emergency Management Agency) and would not have
- happened--given the information provided by ME/Cs--had the floods not
- occurred.
-
- Summer Flood-Related Mortality
-
- From July 1 through August 31, ME/Cs from disaster-declared counties
- classified 27 deaths as flood-related. Decedents' ages ranged from 9 years to
- 88 years (mean: 37.8 years); 18 (67%) were male. No flood-related deaths were
- reported in adjacent counties.
- Of the 27 deaths, 21 were directly related to the floods and resulted
- from drowning; six were indirectly related to the floods (i.e., flood-related
- activity with no direct physical contact with flood water). Thirteen of the 27
- deaths were motor-vehicle-related (i.e., associated with operating or riding
- in a motor vehicle). Of the 16 (59%) deaths directly related to flash
- flooding, 14 resulted from drowning; of these, eight deaths occurred in four
- separate motor-vehicle-related incidents. Of the 11 (41%) deaths directly
- related to riverine flooding, seven resulted from drowning; of these, three
- deaths occurred in separate motor-vehicle-related incidents. Of the six deaths
- indirectly related to the floods, two each were attributed to electrocutions
- that occurred during cleaning efforts in or while reentering a flooded
- residence or business, stress-induced cardiac arrests, and trauma from motor-
- vehicle crashes in which usual traffic patterns were diverted because of
- rising water.
- Of the 21 drownings, 10 were associated with recreational activities. Six
- drownings occurred in one incident when a flash flood inundated a cave in
- which the victims were exploring, and four drownings occurred in separate
- incidents associated with riverine flooding.
-
- Fall Flood-Related Mortality
-
- Flooding from heavy rains that occurred periodically from late September
- through early November contributed to 16 additional deaths: 14 were motor-
- vehicle-related, and two occurred when rising waters from the Missouri River
- flooded homes. Four deaths were associated with the Missouri River and 12 with
- smaller rivers or creeks.
-
- Reported by: HD Donnell, Jr, MD, State Epidemiologist, R Hamm, MD, Office of
- Epidemiology, Missouri Dept of Health. Emergency Response and Coordination
- Group, and Disaster Assessment and Epidemiology Section, Health Studies Br,
- Div of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for
- Environmental Health, CDC.
-
- Editorial Note: Patterns of flood-related mortality vary according to flood
- type as determined by hydrologic characteristics (3). Flash floods,
- characterized by high-velocity streamflow and short warning and response
- times, have the greatest potential for causing death. In contrast, because
- riverine floods usually are caused by gradual accumulation of heavy rainfall,
- warning times are sufficient to allow safe evacuation of nearby communities.
- In Missouri, both flash flooding and riverine flooding occurred almost
- simultaneously on two major rivers and on other smaller rivers and creeks.
- During the summer and fall floods of 1993 in Missouri, drowning was the
- leading cause of flood-related deaths--similar to other hydrologic disasters
- (3-6). Furthermore, a large proportion of flood-related drownings have been
- attributed to operating or occupying motor vehicles, particularly during flash
- floods. This may reflect motorists' misconception that motor vehicles can
- provide adequate protection from rising or swiftly moving flood waters. In
- this report, 75% (27/36) of the drownings that occurred during the summer and
- fall floods in Missouri were motor-vehicle-related.
- The findings in this report underscore the importance of two strategies
- for preventing flood-related injuries and death. First, information about
- flood and post-flood hazards must be disseminated rapidly and widely to groups
- at increased risk for injury. For example, motorists should be warned not to
- drive through areas inundated by flash floods, not to enter swiftly moving
- water, and that only 2 feet of water can carry away most automobiles (7). In
- addition, recreational activities, such as wading or bicycling, in flooded
- areas should be discouraged. Second, hydrologic studies and hazard analyses
- should address potentially flood-prone tributaries. The hazard potential of
- such areas during flash floods should be identified, and appropriate warning
- signs should be posted. MDH is continuing surveillance of flood-related
- mortality to monitor circumstances of death.
-
- References
-
- 1. CDC. Public health consequences of a flood disaster--Iowa, 1993. MMWR
- 1993;42:653-6.
-
- 2. CDC. Morbidity surveillance following the Midwest flood--Missouri, 1993.
- MMWR 1993; 42:797-8.
-
- 3. French JG. Floods. In: Gregg MB, ed. The public health consequences of
- disasters. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public
- Health Service, CDC, 1989:39-49.
-
- 4. French JG, Ing R, Von Allmen S, Wood R. Mortality from flash floods: a
- review of National Weather Service reports, 1969-81. Public Health Rep
- 1983;98:584-8.
-
- 5. Duclos P, Vidonne O, Beuf P, Perray P, Stoebner A. Flash flood disaster
- --Nimes, France, 1988. Eur J Epidemiol 1991;7:365-71.
-
- 6. Wintemute GJ, Kraus JF, Teret SP, Wright MA. Death resulting from motor
- vehicle immersions: the nature of the injuries, personal and environmental
- contributing factors, and potential interventions. Am J Public Health
- 1990;80:1068-70.
- 7. National Weather Service/American Red Cross/Federal Emergency Management
- Agency. Flash floods and floods...the awesome power!: a preparedness guide.
- Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
- Administration, National Weather Service/American Red Cross, 1992; report
- no. NOAA/PA 92050, ARC 4493.
-
-
-
-
- ------------------------------
-
- Date: Wed, 15 Dec 93 22:59:57 MST
- From: mednews (HICNet Medical News)
- To: hicnews
- Subject: New Treatment Prevent Respiratory Infection in High Rish Infants
- Message-ID: <muZmec6w165w@stat.com>
-
- NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
- November 17, 1993
-
- Hope for High-Risk Infants: New Treatment Safe, Effective in
- Preventing Dangerous Respiratory Infection
-
-
- An experimental therapy can safely protect high-risk infants from the
- severe and sometimes fatal complications of a common viral infection of the
- respiratory tract, according to a study supported by the National Institute of
- Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), the National Center for Research
- Resources' General Clinical Research Centers at the University of Colorado and
- the University of Rochester, and MedImmune, Inc.
-
- The study findings suggest that babies born prematurely or with certain
- heart or lung problems can be protected against severe symptoms of respiratory
- syncytial virus (RSV) infection and associated hospital care by receiving a
- solution rich in RSV-fighting antibodies. RSV is the leading cause of early
- childhood pneumonia and bronchiolitis (wheezy bronchitis) in the United
- States.
-
- "Although almost everyone gets infected with RSV, the disease's real
- impact is on the most vulnerable of babies," says Anthony S. Fauci, M.D.,
- NIAID director. "These new findings and their promise of keeping high-risk
- infants healthy and out of the hospital are an important advance in our
- ongoing effort to improve the health of all children."
-
- Jessie R. Groothuis, M.D., of the University of Colorado School of
- Medicine and The Children's Hospital in Denver directed the study, which
- appears in the Nov. 18 The New England Journal of Medicine.
-
- Of all U.S.-born infants, five to 10 of every 1,000 require
- hospitalization for the most severe forms of RSV illness -- pneumonia or
- bronchiolitis. Infants at high risk for long-term RSV-related illness or
- death include those with certain forms of congenital heart disease or
- bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), a chronic disease of the airways seen most
- often in premature infants previously on ventilators. Annually, RSV causes
- an estimated 2,000 to 5,000 deaths and 90,000 hospitalizations as well as
- causing long-term lung complications.
-
- The new treatment, called RSV-enriched intravenous immunoglobulin
- (RSVIG), uses antibodies extracted from the blood of volunteers, such as
- pediatric nurses, who have been exposed to RSV and have high RSV antibody
- levels. In a process known as passive immunization, infants are infused with
- these antibodies during a two-hour period. In contrast, conventional or
- active immunization uses a vaccine to stimulate a patient's own immune system
- to produce antibodies.
-
- For the study, Dr. Groothuis and her colleagues enrolled 249 children
- born prematurely with or without BPD or congenital heart disease at high-risk
- baby clinics in Denver, Boston, Washington D.C., Rochester and Buffalo.
- Children received monthly treatments of RSVIG in one of two doses, 750 or 150
- milligrams (mg.) per kilogram (kg.) of body weight, or no drug. The
- investigators did not know what a child received until the study ended. Each
- child received treatments over one RSV season, which runs from December to
- April in the United States, and was monitored closely in a second season.
-
- Children treated with 750 mg./kg. of RSVIG experienced a 63 percent
- reduction in lower respiratory tract infections, a 63 percent reduction in
- days in the hospital and a 97 percent reduction in days in intensive care
- units, as compared with children who did not receive RSVIG.
-
- Although they spent fewer days in intensive care units, children
- receiving the 150 mg./kg. of RSVIG otherwise did little better in terms of
- RSV-related symptoms and outcomes than those receiving no RSVIG treatment.
-
- The children tolerated RSVIG well during the study: adverse reactions
- occurred in only 3 percent of patients. Side effects included a transient
- accumulation of fluid in the lungs, a mild decrease in blood oxygen levels and
- fever. Six deaths occurred during the three-year study period, none of which
- were linked to the treatment.
-
- "Because there is no vaccine for RSV and treatment options for this
- disease are limited, RSVIG therapy currently offers the only opportunity to
- protect high-risk babies against serious RSV illness," says Dr. Groothuis.
- "This study suggests that RSVIG offers safe and effective protection for
- infants and children at risk for serious RSV infections. RSVIG therapy also
- may help reduce the financial burden of managing RSV infections by reducing
- the number and length of hospital stays and time spent in intensive care units
- by these medically fragile infants."
-
- RSV spreads readily through the air in tiny droplets when an infected
- person exhales, coughs or sneezes. RSV can live on surfaces up to 45 minutes,
- and individuals can become infected if they touch their eyes or nose after
- touching a contaminated surface, such as table tops, doorknobs, tissues or
- toys.
-
- The ease of transmission of RSV means that in settings such as large
- families, day-care centers and pediatric wards virtually everyone becomes
- infected during an RSV outbreak. Adults and older children usually suffer
- only mild symptoms akin to those of the common cold: sniffling, coughing and
- sore throat. But for babies younger than 1 year, especially those born close
- to or during RSV season, RSV infection can cause serious and sometimes deadly
- consequences.
-
- RSV's initial cold-like symptoms, with or without low-grade fever, may
- progress to severe coughing and wheezing. Such symptoms can quickly exhaust a
- baby, particularly premature and other high-risk infants, says Dr. Groothuis.
- Ear infections may develop as a secondary complication, and sometimes babies
- will refuse feeding, adding to their weakness. Also, a child's airways can
- become obstructed, and the sickest of these babies may be unable to breathe on
- their own. Within two to three days of the onset of symptoms, some children
- may require mechanical ventilators to assist them in breathing.
-
- One previous study found that 37 percent of babies with congenital heart
- disease and serious RSV infection died compared with 1.5 percent of healthy
- children with RSV. However, even babies who recover from RSV illness in the
- lower respiratory tract may suffer a long-term reduction of lung function.
- Researchers have found that children who have serious RSV infections as
- infants can develop persistent lung abnormalities as well as a greater
- tendency toward coughing, wheezing and asthma as long as seven to 10 years
- later.
-
-
-
-
- ------------------------------
-
- End of HICNet Medical News Digest V06 Issue #55
- ***********************************************
-